Nicole Moore Sanborn

Argentina’s “Dirty War” began in 1976. Accounts of the “disappeared” have left a generation of Argentinians searching for answers. At the hands of General Videla’s regime, in camps such as “The Little School,” human rights violations reminiscent of concentration camps in Nazi Germany were forced upon “subversives.” The Little School by Alicia Partnoy heartbreakingly recounts her disappearance to and survival within “The Little School.” Despite the Videla regime’s rise to power, atrocities committed, and the regime’s effects today, powerful themes of humanity, suffering, consciousness, resistance, and compliance emerge from sources like the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo and Partnoy’s work.

The Videla regime responsible for the “Dirty War” came to power through a coup. Peron, once a beloved president, fell from grace and was exiled, after which the military came to power. Two leftist groups, the Monteneros and the ERP, emerged from the urban sector to combat repressive military rule. In an effort to end the conflict, Peron returned to Argentina and was reelected. In 1974, Peron died, and Isabella (his third wife and vice president) rose to power. The military took advantage of Isabella’s inability to rule, and controlled her. In 1975, the military passed the “Annihilation Decrees” to allow the repression of left-wing subversives, such as the Monteneros and the ERP. The Argentine Anticommunist Alliance (AAA) was formed with the intent to search and destroy guerilla groups, starting state-sanctioned violence in Argentina. General Videla rose to power in 1976, and the “Dirty War” began. From 1976-1983 the military government gave themselves broad powers to “stabilize” the nation and “eradicate terrorism” by whatever means necessary. Videla’s regime, in an effort to eradicate subversive ideas, sanctioned the “disappearances” of anyone suspected of treason. The “disappeared” were taken to places like the Little School, concentration camps seeking to break people’s spirits and get information. The Monteneros and ERP were heavily targeted. The disappeared were usually young and usually male, but that did not stop the regime from taking pregnant women. Those seized were simply “disappeared,” and families had no way of knowing the state of their loved ones. Petitions were filed. The Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo formed. Approximately 30,000 people were “disappeared,” and now Argentina cries, “never again.”

The regime’s effects, especially of devastation and pain, are demonstrated in the film The Disappeared and in Partnoy’s accounts of her survival. Cesar, born in a concentration camp to a “disappeared” woman, tells his story in the film The Disappeared. Cesar was raised by the maid of a military leader and not told about his history, but he searched and found the truth. Cesar eventually found his extended family, which never truly forgave those who raised him. If Cesar had found his family sooner, he may have met his recently-deceased grandmother, a family member may not have battled addiction, and the family would have been more stable. Also, Partnoy dedicates her book to her brother Daniel, “for whom life became so absurd that he decided to take his own.” The regime altered the lives and families of countless Argentinians.

Despite a tendency for people to negate the humanity of captors and captives as a coping technique, Partnoy sheds light on their humanity. In The Little School, Partnoy writes of her conversations with captors and captives. She references the prisoners and guards by name. Many of the guards went by nicknames, such as Chiche, Abuelo, and Chamame. In “The One Flower Slippers,” Partnoy notes the “guffaws” of the guards at the concentration camp when they noticed Alicia did not have shoes. Partnoy records a conversation she had with Vasca, another captive, about her new slippers that only had one flower. Laughter and conversation are signs of life and humanity. Later, in “Benja’s First Night,” Partnoy notes how Vasca asked for water and was brought water, but when Benja asked, he was beaten, showing the prisoners’ basic human need for water. Partnoy hears guards beating Benja for simply asking for water, and she writes, “The guards feel almighty, yet for some reason I believe he’s afraid: deep down he must have some memory of justice.” Instead of brutalizing and dehumanizing the guard who beat Benja, Alicia acknowledges his emotions and memories. She believes the guards act almighty because they are scared of what the regime will do to them if they are disloyal, and wonders in her mind if they have lost their humanity and knowledge of justice. Partnoy reminds readers of the humanity of all involved in the Dirty War so people will never forget the atrocities humans are capable of inflicting on other humans and to deeply move readers.

The Little School juxtaposes resistance and compliance. The prisoners resist the torture and the breaking of their spirits and minds, but their bodies comply and break. “Telepathy” provides a clear example of Alicia’s resistance and compliance. Her mind resists the breaking of her spirit when she says, “The following day I tried it [telepathy] again…. I woke up alarmed because I couldn’t remember where I had left my child for her nap. I opened my eyes to a blindfold that had already been there for twenty days.” On the same page, she notes how she received so many orders, such as, “Lie down! Hurry Up! Get out!” and talks of peace. “I didn’t have any peace now either, just the hope that there still remained a share of air for me to breathe in a future freedom.” Her mind hopes for the future, and she attempts telepathy to communicate with her family, remember her daughter, and maintain her spirit. Partnoy’s body complies with guards’ orders, but her mind flies freely, away from her situation. The tormentors fail to break her spirit entirely. In addition, the “Madwomen of the Plaza de Mayo” text references the mothers’ resistance to their children “disappearing” by signing petitions to pressure Videla to bring their children back, yet they comply to police orders to maintain their peaceful, yet angry, protest by separating. Consistently, those who fought the Videla regime resisted in their hearts and minds, yet complied with police orders.

Suffering and consciousness are also juxtaposed in the film The Disappeared and in The Little School. Cesar remembers considering suicide at ages 9-10. Cesar lived with a constant fear of consequences for resisting his caretakers. From an early age, he was conscious he did not fit in with his family. His suffering and consciousness of his own identity ultimately bring him to uncover the truth and find his real family. In The Little School, one particular quotation stands out as Alicia recalls her suffering and consciousness. Partnoy writes in “The Small Box of Matches,” “I hope that what really matters to me is to be whole…meanwhile, I’m being destroyed.” Her body is being consistently destroyed through torture, lack of hygiene, water, proper food, and being blindfolded. Alicia’s small box of matches keeps her fake tooth, knocked out when she hit the iron fence at the Little School. She keeps her tooth, because it is a part of her, and she wants to be whole. Alicia is conscious of her intense desire to keep her tooth, and considers whether she is only holding onto it so she has a belonging, or if she truly and innately desires to be whole again. Consciousness and suffering are constantly juxtaposed in Partnoy’s text, as the prisoners’ bodies and spirits are suffering, yet they are consciously aware and occupy their minds with thoughts of better things, so as not to entirely succumb to the breaking of their spirits.

The Argentine Dirty War brings to light human rights violations and fierce atrocities. The film The Disappeared, Partnoy’s The Little School, and the “Madwomen of the Plaza de Mayo” all illustrate from first-hand accounts the atrocities of the Dirty War, revealing details historical overviews alone can never tell. The Dirty War, though painful to study, must never be forgotten. The effects of the Videla regime will continue forever for families of the “disappeared ones,” and we, as historians and as humans, must never allow such atrocities to happen again.

Nicole Moore Sanborn

As a result of the system of plantation slavery in the United States and the absence of legal rights for African-American slaves, modern perception of slavery is very specific. The American school system teaches of one form of slavery, the one that operated in the United States until the late 19^th century. As a result, students typically apply their perceptions of slavery in the United States onto Latin American slavery. Despite the modern stereotypes African slaves in Colonial Latin America were solely plantation slaves who lacked legal rights, the wills of Joaquin Felix de Santana and Colonel Manuel Pereira da Silva and Felipe Edimboro’s court case refute the modern perception of how slavery operated.

Slavery can take many forms. Typically slavery is associated with agricultural slavery, especially on plantations in the southern United States. Due to the system of slavery in the United States and mining operations and sugar plantations in Latin America, perceptions of slavery continue to fixate on the idea of slavery usually meaning plantation slavery. However, slaves in Latin America could also take on urban roles. Felipe Edimboro, a slave for Sanchez, was the butcher of Sanchez’ cattle. Sanchez also entrusted Edimboro to be the overseer of his 1,000-acre San Diego plantation, including over 800 cattle, 30 horses, and 30 slaves while he went away on business. Edimboro did work for a plantation owner, but his position was not a field worker. He presumably had enough leadership and business skills to be entrusted with such a large operation while his owner was away. Although the will of Captain Joaquin Felix de Santana and does not specify what he did as a slave, after manumission he served as a judge three times and worked as a counselor at the chapel of Our Lady of the Rosary. Colonel Manuel Pereira da Silva was the commander of the segregated black militia regiment, the highest government post available to a black man in Brazil. Although Santana and Silva served at these posts after manumission, if they had solely been agricultural slaves lacking in interpersonal communication, leadership, and business skills, they would not have been qualified to serve as judges and military commanders. Edimboro’s position during slavery and Santana and Silva’s roles after manumission question the idea of Latin American slaves working on agricultural plantations.

In the United States, slaves lacked legal rights, where African-Americans still struggled for civil rights well into the 20^th century. In Latin America, however, slaves were awarded a number of legal rights. Spanish law awarded slaves legal rights including the right to own and dispose of property, buy their freedom, buy their family members freedom, and initiate legal action against their owners.

When a slave initiated a legal action against his owner, it was called coartacion. Coartacion required determining the slave’s “just price” by assessing his abilities (based on sex, customs, and skills). The slave then had to make a down payment to become a coartado, and received notarized manumission once paying his assessed sum in full. In the case of Edimboro, slaves’ rights were properly executed. Edimboro bought his freedom through initiating legal action against his owners and was properly represented according to law. Edimboro first chose Miguel Ysnardy to be his interpreter, then his assessor. Ysnardy was replaced with Manuel Rengil as Edimboro’s interpreter, at the request of Sanchez. Edimboro was assessed at 500 pesos, of which he paid 312 pesos on a down payment. The court granted Edimboro don Bartolome de Castro Ferrer (a public attorney) as legal counsel, who won the case for him despite Sanchez’s opposition. Three wills read from the Colonial Lives book showed instances where slaves bought their manumission from their owners. Joaquim Felix de Santana’s will included information on who he was owned by and declares he gained freedom from being a slave of Captain Felix da Costa Lisboa, paying him 135$000. Monetary amounts are denoted in the exact fashion as in the text. Colonel Manoel Pereira da Silva owned his own slaves, and in his will he declares upon his death, his slave Anonia would be assessed at 100$000 to give to his heir, with a period of one year to pay. Each of these men exercised legal rights.

Edimboro owned and disposed of property, and he as well as Colonel Manuel Pereira da Silva attempted to buy their family members’ freedom. Colonel Manuel Pereira da Silva’s first executer, Anastacia Pereira da Silva, was his natural child and slave, whom he purchased to freedom. He conferred her freedom through a letter of manumission April 25, 1796. Natural children were children born of parents who were not married but were legally able to marry at the time of their relationship. Edimboro originally sued for the freedom of himself, his wife Filis, and their young son. However, the marriage was not seen as legitimate before the court because they practiced it in private according to the Protestant tradition instead of being officially married into the Catholic tradition. It is unclear whether Edimboro successfully acquired the freedom for his wife and son in this court case. Slaves could earn money and thus buy property through a jornal and the journalero system, in which slaves could work outside jobs apart from their owners and receive a payment for this work. However, the slaves had to pay a certain portion of this jornal to their masters. Edimboro’s 312 pesos were saved up from the jornal money he and his wife saved. The best description in Edimboro’s court case of the jornal system is in Sanchez’s accusations of Filis (Edimboro’s wife) not paying her jornal to him. Through Edimboro’s court case and the wills of Joaquin Felix de Santana and Manuel Periera da Silva, it is clear slaves did have legal rights and could own and dispose of property, as these men exercised their legal rights.

Slaves in Latin America were not powerless but had the ability to shape their lives. Although it was difficult to acquire enough money to pay for manumission, it was legally possible. Telling this story and challenging the power structure in classrooms is tricky. The best ways to tell these stories are to look at court cases and wills, but this is rarely done outside of a college classroom. Textbooks tell of the encomienda system and indigenous people dying off but rarely mention African conquistadors or even seriously discuss African slaves, though the primary slaves were Africans. In Bahia, the province of Brazil the will documents originated, 40% of the population consisted of slaves, mostly Africans. Challenging power dynamics not only complicates students’ images of the past, but it also forces the United States to come to terms with the harsh realities of their slavery system. Modern stereotypes of slavery originate from students’ understanding of the slavery construct in the United States, one where African-Americans are not seen as equal under the law and were treated brutally. There was no jornal system and slaves could not own property.

While there were a few key white Spanish and Portuguese players in control, colonial Latin America had a system in place that allowed for slaves to buy manumission and saw them as people in the eyes of the law. Manuel Pereira da Silva rose to power and held a high militia position. Edimboro, though he had to take legal action, was able to purchase his manumission because the courts recognized his humanity and saw freedom as a natural state. It is up to future historians to paint a more accurate picture and challenge the social constructs in history books and find documents that show the lives of the less powerful people in Latin America.

Nicole Moore Sanborn

As in any industry, many problems exist in the industry of business and in what is commonly referred to as “the business world.” Interviews are a major tool used within the realm of business to get to know people as well as determine job capability. It is important to note here that interviews are widely used, so this is not just an issue within business. Within interviews, it is common for interviewees or applicants to attempt to alter how interviewers perceive them with what are called impression management tactics. Impression management tactics are a concern within interviews and many believe the use of these tactics is a serious problem. Many argue against the use of impression management tactics, saying they sway the interviewer toward the applicant too much and thus alter who is employed. The problem of the use of impression management tactics within interviews needs to be observed more thoroughly and addressed. Once addressed, a solution should be executed. The best and primary solution to the solving the issue of the use of impression management tactics is increasing interview structure, thereby giving the employers more control and ways to better detect the use of impression management tactics.

Some classify impression management tactics in two forms: verbal and nonverbal. Verbal impression management tactics can further be classified into self-focused tactics (directing the conversation towards themselves) and other-focused tactics (directing the conversation to the interviewer or the company). Within self-focused verbal impression managements there are more subcategories: self-promotion (demonstrating qualifications), exemplification (convincing the interviewer that the applicant’s behavior can be used as a model for others), and discussing how the applicant is responsible for past achievements (Chen, Chiu, and Tsai, 2005). According to Aleksander Ellis, Bradley West, Anne Marie Ryan, and Richard DeShon (2002), another definition for impression management tactics is “a conscious or unconscious attempt to control the images that are projected in social interactions” (p. 1200).  Ellis et al. (2002) claims there are two broad categories displaying types of impression management tactics: assertive and defensive. Ellis et al. (2002) defines assertive tactics as self-promotion tactics and ingratiation tactics. The self-promotion tactics are the same as the ones listed above, with the emphasis being to display competence and intelligence and make a favorable impression to the interviewer. Ingratiation tactics are essentially the “other-focused” tactics above, that is, when an applicant seeks to evoke interpersonal liking and establish good rapport with the interviewer. Defensive tactics, however, are designed to protect or repair one’s image. Defensive tactics include excuses, justifications, and apologies. Defensive tactics are used less often than assertive tactics. Defensive impression management tactics are most commonly used to justify past behavior and potentially to spin a negative quality in the applicant’s favor (Ellis et al., 2002). 

The traditional interview has historically been scrutinized and left suspect to whether or not it truly examines and determines the qualifications and the preparedness of the applicant for the job position. More structured interviews are becoming more and more common, and researchers favor them because they are less prone to issues such as impression management (Ellis et al., 2002). A wide array of topics and actions fall under the term “impression management tactics.” They are exactly as they sound: tactics applicants use to manage their impression before their interviewer. What does impression management look like? The first aspect of impression management is in making the first impression. Robert Lount, an assistant professor at Ohio State University, says “First impressions matter when you want to build a lasting trust. If you get off on the wrong foot, the relationship may never be completely right again” (Quast, 2013, par. 3). According to the Image Consulting Business Institute, image management is “the ongoing, pro-active process of evaluating and controlling the impact of your appearance on you, on others, and the achievement of your goals” (Quast, 2013, par. 4). Lisa Quast (2013), contributor to Forbes magazine, lists five things to consider when making a positive first impression: attire, calculated verbal communication, evaluation of non-verbal communication, wariness of attitude, and scrutinization of grooming, including hair, makeup, and cleanliness. 

According to Ellis et al. (2002), the relationship between an applicant’s use of self-promoting tactics and higher interview ratings is a result of a theory called the attribution theory. Attribution theory suggests that humanity has an inherent need to understand the behavior of other individuals and evaluate the cause of other individuals’ actions (Ellis et al., 2002). Thus, the interviewer, when evaluating an applicant, may attribute actions during the interview to the use of self-promoting impression management tactics and maintaining their overall image. Because the interviewer attributes an applicant’s actions to impression management tactics, the theory is titled attribution theory.

Why is the use of impression management tactics an issue? Many believe the use of these tactics is an issue because the use of tactics may sway the interviewer one way or the other in their review of the applicant. Suppose a well-spoken individual applies for a job and uses impression management tactics during their interview. Meanwhile, another individual who is less well spoken but better qualified walks into the interview and either does not use impression management tactics or does not use them as well. If the interviewer favors the first individual over the second individual due to the use of impression management tactics (tactics which made the first individual more likeable or appear more qualified), the use of these tactics could become an issue.

When observing the negative aspects of the use of impression management tactics, one must consider industry. Some employment opportunities have a “customer-contact requirement.” (Chen, Chiu, and Tsai, 2005). Sales representatives must prove job competence when talking to customers. Journalists must be able to present themselves well to conduct interviews. Public relations and marketing employees must network and expand the horizons of the company. Essentially, there is a customer-contact requirement in many job and business settings. However, employment opportunities for scientific research jobs or jobs in the engineering field have less of a customer-contact requirement. While these people must know how to present themselves, they do not go out and talk to the public or other businesses on a daily basis, and thus the ability to use impression management tactics well is far less important. Impression management tactics are also less of a problem in these fields. This paper observes business-specific interviews, where employees are required to be in contact with customers more frequently. Thus, impression management tactics affecting and intervening with employment decisions is more widespread in the realm of business.

This poses an issue for interviewers. If the applicant uses impression management tactics to sway the interviewer to approval, the issue of authenticity within the interview arises. Karl Nunkoosing (2005) discusses the issue of truth and authenticity in interviews. In his essay, the interviewer is considered a researcher. The interviewer is indeed a type of a researcher, gathering information from stories about applicants. Nunkoosing poses the issue of the “researcher” or the interviewer only basing employment decisions off of the stories applicants tell. He argues that not only does the applicant choose the aspects of life he or she is most interested in telling, but also that a person may “have a well-rehearsed story totell” (Nunkoosing, 2005, pg. 701). The issue of impression management even boils down to what stories are told.

Amy Gallo (2012), author in the Harvard Business Review, cites John Lees, a career strategist and author of books about interviews. Gallo says that Lees dismisses the advice to “be yourself” in an interview. He emphasizes being the best version of you. His advice essentially screams the use of impression management tactics to put your best foot forward in an interview setting. However, simply because one is being the best version of themselves does not mean they are being a false version of themselves. It must be pointed out here, however, that impression management tactics do not necessarily fabricate someone’s personality. The issue of the use of impression management tactics swaying the interviewer ties into Lees’ advice to “put your best foot forward” and persuade the interviewer to favorably judge. The issue is that you do not know if the applicant is lying about their personality, tendencies, or capabilities to appear favorable. In some extreme cases, lying is a possibility. Other times, resources could be wasted attempting to figure out whether or not the applicant is lying. Companies have more important issues to attend to than to figure out whether or not an interviewee is being hurtful. Thus, the use of impression management has the potential to be a problem in many facets of business.

Another aspect that must be taken into consideration is the type of questions being asked in an interview. Ellis et al. (2002) divide interview questions into two types: situational and experiential. These two types of questions are commonly referenced in many other sources. Experiential interview questions are questions about an applicant’s past experience and focus on what has already been accomplished. Ellis et al. (2002) hypothesizes that more self-promotion tactics are used in answering experiential questions. This makes sense, as self-promotion tactics include self-promotion (qualification focused) and exemplification (saying they could be a model for behavior) tactics. When an applicant focuses on his or her past achievements they will focus on why they are qualified for the job and look to past achievements to prove he or she can be a model employee. Situational interview questions focus on the future, where the interviewer asks the applicant what they would do if put in a specific future situation. The use of more ingratiation tactics is expected (Ellis et al., 2002) in answering situational questions, specifically justification, where the applicant would justify their behavior in a future situation the interviewer asked about. Because different tactics are used when different questions are asked, it can be difficult to determine the totality of the effects that the use of impression management tactics has on interviewers. The use of impression management tactics is a problem nonetheless that needs to be solved so that interviews are based more on the qualities and qualifications of the applicant rather than on how much the applicant persuaded the interviewer to act favorably toward them.

The best solution to the issue of using impression management tactics in interviews is increasing the structure of interviews. Before interviews can be restructured, the current structure of interviews must be observed. According to Northwestern University (2013), every interview follows a similar structure. In each interview, there is the arrival of the applicant (nonverbal cues are utilized here), the introduction to the interviewer, an information exchange, and the wrap-up. Within the information exchange aspect, four different question types are asked: behavioral, closed-ended, preference, and follow-up questions. Behavioral questions focus more on past behavior of the applicant and experiences, while closed-ended questions typically have brief answers and are where the interviewer has more control. Behavioral and preference questions are more open-ended and are where the applicant can typically take charge. Preference questions are exactly as they sound: the interviewer asking about the preferences of the applicant. Follow-up questions are typically asked in response to an applicant’s answer to a specific question and are where the interviewer can take charge and direct the conversation. The introduction and wrap-up aspects of the interview are quite similar, as both typically involve a handshake and either introductions or farewells. However, in the wrap-up, the employer typically asks the applicant if they have any questions. At this time it is important for the applicant to demonstrate how interested they are in the job position as well as how serious they are about getting hired (Northwestern, 2013). Even in structured interviews the basic layout above remains. According to the online Business Dictionary (2014), a structured interview is a “fixed format interview in which all questions are prepared beforehand and are put in the same order to each interviewee” (BusinessDictionary.com, 2014). Structured interviews are said to provide precision and reliability that is required in certain situation (BusinessDictionary.com, 2014).

One way to decrease the effectiveness of the use of impression management tactics is to know how to spot types of employees the company is not looking to hire. Carol Goman (2013), contributor to Forbes.com, writes about how to spot a liar during an interview. While outright lie detection is not directly related to impression management tactics, some of these tips can also be used to spot the use of impression management tactics. She suggests watching for stress signals and watching the applicant’s eyes. By watching for stress signals, the interviewer can observe when the applicant attempts to calm himself down and attempt to manage the interviewer’s impression of him. When this is observed through noticing the applicant’s eyes, the interviewer can guard himself from impression management tactics. Another tip is to notice when the applicant isn’t really answering the question, but is finding a way to avoid the direct question that was asked. This can be an attempt to cover something up or manage an impression (Goman, 2013).

The final two tips Goman gives are to listen to vocal stress and detect emotions hidden by smiles. If it seems obvious that the applicant is stressed or is covering up a feeling by smiling, impression management tactics are most likely being used to either cover something up about the applicant or give a false impression of who he or she truly is. Admittedly, the interviewer could exaggerate detecting these signals (they could think the applicant is lying and be wrong), and signs of stress could simply be related to the fact that the applicant is in an interview for a position they are trying to obtain. As a result, these tips for lie detection as they relate to impression management tactics are only the beginning of the solution to decrease the efficacy of the aforementioned tactics. 

As previously stated, the best solution to combat the efficacy of impression management tactics is to increase the structure of the interview. Now that the structure of interviews has been explained and tips for interviewers to use to detect the use of impression management tactics have been given, how to structure the interview will be discussed. As explained earlier when defining impression management tactics, the issue is also an issue of industry, and this paper is business specific. Beth Leech of Rutgers University writes about techniques for how to ask questions in interviews (2002). The first step is for the interviewer to establish rapport. Rapport in this sense is not simply making the applicant feel comfortable. The interviewer should appear professional and generally knowledgeable about the applicant, without knowing too many specific details but appearing to know the basics of the applicant. Leech also discussed question wording in interviewers. The words used in the questions being asked should be non-judgmental, non-suggestive, non-presumptuous and non-threatening. If the interviewer knows the applicant did not like their old boss or was in a sticky job situation or maybe messed up in a previous place of employment, the interviewer should watch the question working. If the question seems accusatory, the applicant is likely to put up walls and engage in impression management tactics to attempt to control the situation. When non-suggestive words are used in a question, the applicant is more likely to give the interviewer more information (Leech, 2002). Thus, wording and what angle the interviewer is coming from plays a role in an applicant’s use of impression management tactics. Interviewers should carefully consider how questions are worded to get the most honest answer from their applicants.

When structuring interviews, question type is imperative. Question type can be the key to controlling the interview and can be used to determine whether or not the applicant is engaging in impression management tactics. Pulakos and Schmitt (1995/2006) say that two types of interview questions are experience based questions and situational questions. Situational questions discuss the future, where the applicant explains what he or she would do in a future situation while on the job. Experience-based questions, however, look to past experiences and actions to determine the preparedness of the applicant. An example of a situational based interview question is as follows: “What actions would you take in a situation where you know another employee is faking the books or embezzling money from the company?” An example of an experienced based interview question could be “What have you done in the past that has prepared you to organize the books and financial records of the company?”

Pulakos and Schmitt (1995/2006) conducted a study to determine whether situational questions or experienced based questions are better to determine future job performance. It is important to note here that applicants can and will still use impression management tactics when answering each question type. The goal is to find a solution where the interviewers are more in control and aware of the use of impression management tactics, thereby rendering the tactics less effective. Pulakos and Schmitt (1995/2006) found that although situational questions were viewed as potentially better to determine job performance, their hypothesis was incorrect. Experience-based questions were a better predictor of job performance, according to the meta-analyses and statistical analysis of the data collected (Pulakos & Schmitt, 1995/2006). Therefore, experienced-based questions should be used to better predict job performance. Interviewers should ask these questions and watch for the use of impression management tactics.

Although applicants can choose which experiences to discuss in the interview and manage their impression as such, looking to past experiences is a better predictor of job performance, as previously stated. Employers should be aware that impression management tactics will be used but should be able to detect them better. Therefore, to be more in control of the interview, despite the use of impression management tactics, interviewers should primarily ask experience-based questions. This way the interviewer can close in on the applicant and make a judgment as to whether or not he or she is telling the truth. If enough experience-based questions are asked, the interviewer will get a broader sense of who the applicant truly is by controlling the interview and forcing the applicant to tell of enough past experiences. The interviewer will still have to watch for the use of impression management tactics.

Impression management tactics are commonly used in interviews, specifically in the business world. Impression management tactics have various categories, and applicants apply these tactics depending on the question being asked (situational or experiential). The use of impression management tactics is considered a problem because the use of these tactics sways the interviewer more favorably toward that applicant. This, in turn, raises questions about if the applicant was really a better applicant than those who did not use impression management tactics. There are many tangible solutions to the issue of the use of impression management tactics in interviews, the primary one being interview structure. The use of impression management tactics will not cease to exist because likeability will always play a role in an interviewer’s decision-making. An applicant cannot be chosen based on measurable qualities alone. However, with increasing interview structure, interviewers will be more aware of the use of these tactics and there will be less wondering about whether or not the applicant swayed the interviewer into employing him or her when someone better suited for the job also applied.

References

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Chen, C., Chiu, S., &, Tsai, W.. (2005). Exploring boundaries of the effects of applicant impression management tactics in job interviews. Journal of Management, 31 (1): 108-125.

Ellis, A., West, B., Ryan, A., &, DeShon, R.. (2002). The use of impression management tactics in structured interviews: A function of question type? American Psychological Association, 87 (6): 1200-1208.

Gallo, A.. (2012). Stand out in your interview. HBR Blog Network. Retrieved from http://blogs.hbr.org/2012/09/stand-out-in-your-interview/.

Goman, C.. (2013). Seven tips for spotting liars. Forbes. Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/carolkinseygoman/2013/05/20/7-tips-for-spotting-liars-at-work.

Leech, B.. (2002). Asking questions: Techniques for semi-structured interviews. Political Science and Politics, Volume unlisted (4): 665-668.

Northwestern University. (2013). Structure of an interview. Retrieved from http://www.northwestern.edu/careers/students/employment-skills/interviews/structure-of-an-interview-.html.

Nunkoosing, K.. (2005). The problems with interviews. Qualitative Health Research, 15 (5): 698-706.

Pulakos, E., &, Schmitt, N.. (2006). Experience-based and situational interview questions: Studies of validity. First published online 7 December 2006. Reprinted from 1995, Personnel Psychology, 48 (2): 289-308.

Quast, L.. (2013). Five tips to create a positive first impression. Forbes. Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/lisaquast/2013/09/09/5-tips-to-create-a-positive-first-impression/.

Nicole Moore Sanborn

It’s that time of year again … the time when the seniors are about to graduate, the juniors probably can’t wait for them to leave, moments are bittersweet, and this chapter we call “high school” is about to come to a close.  It is hard to believe I’m finishing up my last few writing assignments from Mr. Rush, taking my last high school math tests, rehearsing to perform my last high school play, and playing my last high school soccer season.  That being said, I wanted to take some time to look back on the past few years called “high school,” make some sense of them, and reveal what I have learned.  This is my farewell article.  Graduation is the ending of one chapter and the beginning of another.  It would be silly to say I didn’t learn anything in high school.  I learned a lot.  Between athletics, drama, schoolwork, and personal life, I’ve learned a few lessons.  But, what have I learned?

First, I would like to include some “poems” I have written in past years.  I say “poems” because many of them have no structure.  I suppose they would be free verse poems, in which case they are real poems.

I wrote this one during my sophomore year.  It is titled “Her Fight Inside.”  The goal was to resemble spiritual warfare as well as truth overcoming lies.  It is a rather depressing poem.  Whether or not we experience this particular fight inside our hearts, we will all end up, at some point in our lives, with some fight inside of us.  Truth vs. lies.  Granted, I did steal the title from the song “Fight Inside” by RED, one of my favorite bands.  Here it is:

I wrote this next one after a short-term mission trip to Philadelphia with five other people in my class.  We helped the homeless by working in a soup kitchen and bringing food to them on the street.  I wrote this one in 10^th grade as well.  Before writing this piece, I had reached a point of slight brokenness in my life, because I was beating myself up about every little thing.  This one is called “Healing the Broken.”

Brokenness.  It’s everywhere.  All you have to do is turn around a corner and it almost suffocates you.  This is the sad epidemic that Philadelphia and many other places face. Brokenness.  You can find it all around you, everywhere.  You see someone smiling, yet if you look deep into their eyes you can see it.  A girl cracks a smile while inside she is dying.  She turns a corner and the tears flow.  Only when she’s isolated and alone does she let the brokenness show.  Most of us put up a façade of what we want people to perceive us as, when beneath that lies brokenness and scars.  People don’t realize how deep hurt can be, or how prevalent it is in a person’s life.  The only way we can heal the brokenness is first to detect it.  Take the song “Eleanor Rigby” by The Beatles, for instance… “all the lonely people, where do they all come from?”  Frankly, they’re everywhere.  Most of us are just too blind to see it.  If we weren’t so wrapped up in ourselves then maybe we could actually see it, and could then heal it.  Most of us put up that façade of happiness and fake laughter, while truthfully the night before we cried ourselves to sleep or our hearts just ache.  We tell ourselves that we don’t want others to see us broken, that we want them to see us strong.  Yet, if we are truly honest with ourselves, we do want people to know.  Not for pity, but for help and comfort.  We do indeed want somebody to know that we are hurting, so that they can help.  Most people are afraid to let someone in.  They fear transparency and vulnerability.  Yet, deep in their mind, they know that they need someone.  Brokenness is not hidden as easily as some believe.  In reality, if you just look deep into someone’s eyes you can see it.  So, why don’t we?  Why are we so wrapped up in ourselves and getting where we need to go that we can’t help someone else?  What if we looked into someone’s eyes, and asked how they’re really doing?  What if we extended the hand and told them we were there if they ever wanted to talk?  Would it have an impact?  I believe it would.

This next gem was written in 11^th grade, during a period of happiness.  It was one of those days where I had inspiration to write, so I wrote.  I wanted to highlight attributes of God while crying out from the perspective of one who wants to heal the broken.  I also desired to reveal struggles some adolescents endure, struggles which aren’t always brought to light.  I entitled it “Help Us.”

The final piece I would like to share was written October of this school year.  I am actually very proud of this one, because it actually has a rhyme scheme.  I did not divide it into stanzas.  Some of the rhymes are rather silly, but bear with me.  It is called “A Reminder for when you Feel Weak.”

Now you’ve seen some of my previous writings and the intentions behind them.  But, what have I learned?  I have learned to solidify what I believe.  I have learned to persevere even through tough times.  I have learned God is sovereign.  He has taken every tough situation I have been through and used it to His glory and for His purposes.  My sophomore year was rough.  I was told many of my close friends were moving away.  Some of them did, but not as many as originally said they may have to move.  I attempted to accomplish everything without God.  I tried to rely on myself, because who else was going to get the work done?  Who else was going to do perfect, yes perfect, in everything?  My mindset became one of striving for perfection continually, without seeking God’s direction and help.  I did not see I could not be perfect and I could not accomplish life on my own.  My mindset toward myself was negative.  I was striving for a perfection that could not be obtained and made myself miserable for not obtaining it.  Every little mistake would trigger a string of negative phrases in my mind.  Why?  Because I stopped seeking God and trusting He would get me through the situation.  I took matters into my own hands, thinking that would fix it.  I stayed away from God because He was taking my friends away.  He was taking the people I cared about away from me, and because of that, I was mad at Him.  So I stopped seeking and decided to take everything on alone.  It took many strained relationships, mental breakdowns, and almost bad decisions before I realized what I had done and why.  Then, I turned around.  I started seeking God’s direction again.  Life got a little bit easier.  I stopped beating myself up every time I made a little mistake.  Strained relationships were gradually healed.  While in those situations, I did not see the good in them.  Looking back, I realize what I learned.  I learned it’s okay not to have all the answers.  It’s okay not to be perfect.  Vulnerability is okay.  Hiding my brokenness will not fix it.  Suppressing the hurt and not allowing others to help does no good.  Even when things get tough (not extremely tough, because I hadn’t gone through a traumatic or life-altering, painful event), God still has a plan.  My brokenness showed me the sovereignty of God.  I remember a phrase a Summit graduate once told me: “Sometimes God has to put you so far down, the only way you can look is up.”

Fast-forward to junior year.  I learned how to trust God even more with my stress.  Junior year was stressful, yes, but with God, it can be handled.  God definitely helped me out with my stress issues.  I learned to trust that He would stretch my time and heal my anxiety.  I continued to learn the unattainability of perfection.  I learned how to challenge myself without stretching myself too thin.  God really blessed me junior year with great relationships, new friends, as well as academic success.  My soccer season was really awesome as well.  I began to love myself for who I was, for who God made me to be, instead of striving for what I could not attain.

What did I learn senior year?  I learned how to trust God even more.  I learned it’s okay not to be the absolute best.  I learned I would not be accepted into every college I applied to.  I learned to cherish those special moments with friends, because time is short.  I learned to revel in the sweet moments, learn from painful moments, and to always keep going.  I learned how LOUD Americans are, and how many people we can fit into one overnight train car.  I learned more than I ever thought I would in a whirlwind European adventure.  I saw exciting and famous artworks and buildings.  I discovered different cultures and realized America has more good things to offer than I previously believed (free bathrooms and water, anyone?).  I learned I could successfully write a senior thesis, the daunting graduation requirement which connotes a much scarier image than is necessary.  I learned everyone’s futures are different, and realized I may never see some of my classmates again.  I realized my class will say “We’ll keep in touch!  Friends forever!” when I know it will not be true.  I learned to be secure in my faith.  I strengthened my faith through 12^th grade Bible.  Learning about other worldviews and realizing how devoid of hope and inconsistent they are really solidified what I believe about Christ.  Senior year was amazing, and I learned so much.  I guess this is farewell…

Farewell to you, the future leaders of Summit.  Farewell to morning classes in the youth room (couches!), farewell to cramming three people into a table during class, farewell to the café, to high school drama programs.  Farewell to explaining to people exactly what protocol training and soirée are, and why we have predetermined escorts.  Farewell to our soccer team’s beloved “Clunker,” and to the bus which seemingly breaks down on every Freshman Trip, a trend my class started.  Farewell to discussing Bigfoot in history class, to watching theological debate videos, to walking across a tiny school to get to class.  Farewell to Predestination vs. Free Will debates at any time of the day in a private Christian school.  Farewell to high school athletics, to Ministry Teams, to watching funny and odd videos in the café.  Farewell to the babies crying during Mom2Mom while we are in class.  Farewell to explaining exactly how Summit works to outsiders, farewell to being called “Summiteers.”  Farewell to playing outside during English class in the middle school years.  Farewell to our beloved retreat and Triple R Ranch.  Farewell to school hosted service projects, to days of literally scrubbing the school walls.

The Class of 2013 is leaving a lot behind.  Yet, we look forward to what is ahead.  But, what is ahead?  Uncertainty, new friendships, independence, tested faith, and transformation are what lay ahead.  Meeting new people, without the labels we received in our elementary, middle, and high school days (Oh! You’re the girl who ________ in ___ grade!).  I plan to remember a few wise words of advice given to the Class of 2013.  We will be tempted, and our faith will most likely be challenged.  We will be thrust into the unknown, will be challenged, and life will change.  Decisions will have to be made.  People will change.  Our futures will begin to be shaped.  I believe high school is not only about learning facts and figures but also about discovering independence, learning life lessons, and implementing the facts and figures into our experiences (though you may think you don’t use what you learn in school, you do).  I look forward to what is ahead.

Farewell, readers….

Nicole Moore Sanborn

This article will take a look at one of the world-renowned chocolate companies, Ghirardelli Chocolate.  The major highlights in the history of this institution will be observed, from the company’s meager beginnings to present times.  A list of some of Ghirardelli Chocolate Company’s products will be included.  I hope you will enjoy this delightful look at this chocolate company founded in our very own country.

In 1849, Domingo Ghirardelli immigrated to the United States from Italy, harboring dreams of striking it rich in the California Gold Rush.  Domingo attempted, and failed, at mining, and instead settled on opening a tent store in Stockton, California, selling various supplies and confectioners to miners.  Several months later, due to the success of his store in Stockton, he opened a second store on the corner of Broadway and Battery in San Francisco, his first establishment in the city.  Unfortunately, a major fire in 1851 destroyed his business.  The fifth of a series of San Francisco fires destroyed approximately 1,500 buildings, including Ghirardelli’s Battery Street location.  A few days later, a runaway fire leveled half of Stockton, and Domingo’s two businesses disappeared.  Domingo rebuilt.  After the fires, he consolidated his salvaged assets and opened the Cairo Coffee House on San Francisco’s Commercial Street.  Much to Domingo’s dismay, the Cairo Coffee House proved unsuccessful.  He did not give up.  Domingo formed a new confectionary company called Ghirardely & Girard on the corner of Kearny and Washington.  Ghirardely & Girard was to become the modern-day Ghirardelli Chocolate Company with over 150 years of traditional chocolate manufacturing.  Business flourished, and Domingo sent for his family, who, though Italians, resided in Peru. He changed the company name to Mrs. Ghirardelli & Co.  Records show the company imported 200 pounds of cocoa beans in that year (a high amount for the time period), a number that would continue to increase as the company grew.  In 1853, the company was moved to the corner of Jackson and Mason.  Business continued to flourish, and the company moved again in 1855 to the corner of Greenwich and Powell.

1865 brought an important observation in the factory.  By hanging a bag of chocolate in a warm room, the cocoa butter drips out.  This leaves a residue that can be processed into ground chocolate.  This technique is called the Broma process and is generally used in chocolate manufacturing.  By 1884, the company had over 30 employees and shipped products all over the Western and Eastern United States, China, Japan, and Mexico.  Business boomed.  The company dropped its previously developing line of wine, cordials, and liquors, and sold only coffee, chocolate, and spices.  1893 left the company needing additional space once again.  The company purchased the Pioneer Woolen Mill Building on San Francisco’s northern waterfront.  Manufacturing moved to the new location.  This is the present location of Ghirardelli Square.  Yes, there is not only the Ghirardelli factory in San Francisco, but it is called the Ghirardelli Square!  I want to go to San Francisco for this reason and many others, as I am a chocolate aficionado.  In 1900, six years after Domingo’s death, the company sold its coffee and spice business, limiting products to chocolate and mustard (yes, you read that correctly, mustard…).  A two-story warehouse was built on North Point Street, now called the Cocoa Building.  The business grew in the “Roaring Twenties.”  In 1923, the company added two stories to their Cocoa Building.  The four-story structure became the base for the 15-foot-high illuminated letters spelling “Ghirardelli.”  The sign was visible for miles, and, as a result, became a welcoming sight to ships passing through the Golden Gate.

In 1963, the Golden Grain Macaroni Company, owned and operated by the De Domenico family, purchased the Ghirardelli Chocolate Company.  Included in the purchase was the company name, products, formulas, and equipment.  Ghirardelli Square underwent a renovation and officially opened as a festival marketplace on November 29, 1964.  The renovation included shoring up old buildings and strengthening them structurally.  San Francisco declared Ghirardelli Square an official city landmark in 1965.  Production facilities moved to San Leandro, California in 1967.  Northwestern Mutual Life Insurance Company and Real Property West (companies with established ties to San Francisco) became the new owners of Ghirardelli Square in 1968.  The companies pledged to maintain the flavor and integrity of Ghirardelli upon making this purchase.

The owners applied for and were granted National Historic Register status for Ghirardelli Square in 1982, and the management at the Square sought to enhance and improve the ambience of the Square.  To accomplish this, more greenery, trees, and flowers were added to the landscaping.  New outdoor umbrellas enlivened (and continue to enliven) the interior of the Square, contributing to the visual appeal and atmosphere.  Ghirardelli Square became a model for the restoration of classic buildings throughout the country, with more than 75 tenants offering cuisine, art, and merchandise from around the word.  The company changed hands again in 1986, when the Quaker Oats Company acquired Golden Grain and Ghirardelli Chocolate.  Quaker Oats sold the Ghirardelli Chocolate division to a private investment group headed by John J. Anton and the Thomas H. Lee Company in 1992.  At this time, John J. Anton became the president and CEO of the Ghirardelli Chocolate Company.

1998 brought another stark change in management for the beloved chocolate company.  Lindt and Sprungli Chocolate, out of Switzerland, acquired Ghirardelli Chocolate Company as a wholly-owned subsidiary of its holding company.  The largest plant expansion in its history began for Ghirardelli Chocolate Company.  The expansion included 50,000 square feet of new production and 20,000 square feet of laboratory and office space.  In 1999, the company launched one of my favorite kinds of chocolate ever: their famous filled Squares chocolates, including their ever-popular flavor Milk Chocolate with Caramel Filling.  Ghirardelli Squares are quite famous and are one of my favorite chocolate desserts.  Their deliciousness is difficult to match.  In 2002, Ghirardelli Chocolate celebrated its well-deserved 150^th Anniversary.

In 2003, Ghirardelli opened its first Factory Store at the site of the headquarters and manufactory in San Leandro, California.  Ghirardelli Chocolate Company launched its first national television advertising campaign in 2004.  Also in 2004, the company launched its first limited edition flavors, inspired by the holiday seasons’ most popular flavors: Peppermint Bar and Eggnog.  2005 brought the re-launching of its Dark Squares chocolate with new and improved recipes and became the first widely-available chocolate to declare cacao content on its packaging (60% cacao, etc.).  Ghirardelli launched its first national print advertising campaign for its baking chocolate in the same year.  Also in 2005, Ghirardelli Ice Cream and Chocolate Shops launched a new Dark Chocolate version of their hot fudge sauce.  In 2006, Ghirardelli introduced new Intense Dark Bars with luxuriously deep and velvety chocolate fused with sophisticated ingredients (according to their boastful website; I have not tasted this product).

I will now take time to discuss their Ghirardelli Chocolate Squares, which are the whole reason I am writing my article on Ghirardelli.  On the bag I just finished of the Ghirardelli Squares (I’ve been eating it slowly; this bag has been mine for quite some time) is written “Take time to slow down and savor each bite of intense, slow-melting Ghirardelli Squares chocolate.  You’ll experience the perfect balance of chocolate intensity and rich ingredients.  Enjoy as the chocolate pleasure lingers and time stands still.”  The flavors of squares advertised on the bag I currently have (not all of these flavors were in the bag) include milk caramel, peanut butter, dark, mint, raspberry, and dark caramel.  Each type of square is delicious, and I highly recommend experiencing Ghirardelli chocolate for yourself (you know, for that delicious, first-hand research).

Ghirardelli also sells chocolate bars of many different varieties.  Varieties of bars tend to have fillings in them, basically a larger version of their Squares.  Flavors (of their bars with fillings) include caramel, mint, orange, raspberry, and strawberry.  Also manufactured are the sea salt bar and peppermint bark.  Some specialty bars include Sublime White Cookies Jubilee Bar, Sublime White Vanilla Bean Dream Bar, 32% Cacao Creamy Devotion, Gourmet Milk Coconut Rendezvous, Intense Dark Cabernet Matinee, Intense Dark Toffee Interlude, Intense Dark Hazelnut Heaven, as well as Intense Dark chocolate bars with 60%, 72%, and 86% cacao.  The three intense dark bars are branded as the Cacao Evening Dream, the Cacao Twilight Delight, and the Cacao Midnight Reverie, respectively.  Ghirardelli also manufactures a five-pound chocolate bar!  Ghirardelli also manufactures drink mixes.  Among them include two types of hot cocoa mix: double chocolate and chocolate mocha; Ghirardelli also makes a premium white mocha mix.  Coffee mixes include whole bean coffee, white mocha coffee set, as well as the double chocolate coffee kit.  Two kinds of frappes are manufactured: double chocolate and classic white.  Ghirardelli makes chocolate, white, and caramel sauce and baker’s chocolate. Products also include chocolate covered delicacies.  Among these delicacies are almonds, cherries, blueberries, espresso beans, malt balls, peanuts, raisins, pretzel balls, wafers, and nonpareils (the little chocolate chips with the white dots on them, very tasty).

Ghirardelli Square holds a chocolate festival each year.  Tickets are bought, and people travel to this festival in masses.  In 2013, the festival will be held on September 14^th and 15^th.  Festival goers have the opportunity to experience the latest “chocolate trends” while surrounding themselves in the rich history of one of America’s longest-operating chocolate companies.  The festival began in 1996 and has been held each year since.  The festival has been a tremendous success, so much success the festival has extended down to Beach Street and occupies the Plaza in San Francisco Square as well as an entire San Francisco block.

I am a chocolate aficionado myself.  However, chocolate, like any sugary treat, is to be enjoyed in moderation.  I am not trying to sound like your mother attempting to steer you away from sweets.  Consuming too much chocolate is damaging to health, as it has little nutrients and is high in calories and fat (compared to fruit and vegetables).  I love chocolate; however, I felt as a responsible writer I should warn my readers of consuming chocolate in excess.  I encourage you to taste and enjoy Ghirardelli’s delicious treats.  I have tried very few of the abundance of products listed previously in this article.  I have not seen most of these products in stores in the area.  However, if you go to http://www.ghirardelli.com, a full list of their products can be observed, and you can search which stores to buy their products as well as check out the “Ghirardelli Online” button.  The “Ghirardelli Online” button is one of the three small buttons and is the blue one.  These three buttons are listed below the price of each product (which is listed below each product).

I hope this article has been enjoyable.  I also hope you will sample for yourself the delicious products the Ghirardelli Chocolate Company has to offer.  I also hope this sampling has provided insight into the history of this beloved company.

Source

http://www.ghirardelli.com