Nicole Moore Sanborn

Imagine a world without music … awkward silences in the elevator, no radio in the car, no “pump-up” workout music or concerts, a lack of movie scores, and silent cartoons would be a few noticeable changes.  Imagine Tom and Jerry without music.  Without music, the education system would change.  Music education, worship electives in Christian schools, and music classes would cease to exist.  Musicals would not be performed.  The absence of music changes one’s perception of the world.  The world would be less enjoyable, and everything would change.  Music is direly important to our culture; music education cannot exist without music.  Music is a central aspect of being human.  Music education is very important, as it explores a central aspect of culture and humanity; music education improves human thought processes.  Should we not make an effort to understand something so central to our culture?

The following definitions are paraphrased or quoted from Webster’s New World Dictionary of the American Language.  Music education is the process of training and developing the knowledge, mind, and character of a person in the art and science of music.  By music, I mean the combination of vocal or instrumental sounds or tones that form structurally complete and emotionally expressive compositions.  The scope of music education is through public and private schooling, as well as using music in the home or taking private lessons.  By thought processes, I mean “the power of reasoning, or of conceiving ideas; intellect.”

The history of music education varies by country.  For the purpose of narrowing my scope, only the history of music education in the United States will be discussed.  Music education in the United States began in the Colonial Era (1740s-1780s), especially in New England.  At the time, music education was acquired through singing psalmodies orally, as songs were passed from generation to generation.  The other primary method of music education was called “lining out.”  In this method, a “cantor” speaks or sings a line, and the congregation repeats.  This method was not favored due to its redundant nature and assumed waste of time.  “Lining out” was assumed a waste of time due to its redundancy and ineffectiveness.  The congregation gained familiarity with musical compositions, but not necessarily understanding.  The first music teachers taught singing by individual note, one at a time, and traveled from town to town to teach.  They taught in homes, meeting houses, and saloons.  The skill of reading music was rare.  Those who could read music attended Harvard for further study.  Reformers advocated singing songs note by note, and singing schools were established to teach people how to read music (Keene 10-12).

The development of music education was partially facilitated by John Tufts, who compiled a book of psalm tunes, the first book of music instruction in America.  Notes appeared on the staff with punctuation symbols to indicate length (a period was a half note, colon a whole note, and lack of punctuation represented a quarter note).  His book was used until 1881 and eased the transition from learning each note individually to understanding and seeing the rhythmic pattern of psalms in their entirety.  Thomas Walter wrote Grounds and Rules of Music Explained.  In this work, Walter encouraged singing by note and explained music would be preserved more accurately (as to how the composer intended) through this method.  He also emphasized listening to music as an aid to music education (13-15).  In the 1800s, the previously-established singing schools were further developed.  Singing schools increased in number and popularity, taught a stronger curriculum due to published music education works, and had a particular purpose.  The aim of this development was to supply the church choir with trained musicians.  In addition to voice production and vowel formation, the students learned about clefs, syllables, keys, and note values.  Singing schools became the primary means of music education (19).

From the 1720s-mid 1800s, the tune book was the only readily available text for music education; these were meant for intellectual consideration rather than practice (33).  In performance practices, tempo markings and metronomes were used.  In rhythm, different meters were explored.  Lessons were taught about pitch and key notes, but few books were written on the subject at the time (36-39).

Due to improvement (curricula was further developed and music teachers were more available) in school systems and instruments being manufactured in America, the desire for singing schools decreased.  Serious music students went to study in Europe.  Despite improvement of curricula in America, music education curricula in Europe was further developed (more works had been published and music education was more widespread than in America); the serious music students left America to study under European composers.  European teachers moved to America.  Since America was still a young country, employment opportunities for music teachers were more widespread, enticing European teachers to move.  Music education was moving forward (55-56).

Music education varied by region.  The north consisted of towns who favored education, while the south consisted of counties who viewed education as a luxury (59).  In Virginia, people supported the arts, and musicians made money through playing and singing.  By the late 1780s, patronage stopped in Virginia and musicians found other employment (63-65).  In South Carolina, music education was considered a requirement.  The church had little influence and secular music was popular.  Music instruction was aimed at the sons and daughters of the wealthy.  South Carolina was like a European music capital at this time (65).  By 1780, Philadelphia was one of the top music cities in the country, competing with South Carolina.  Teaching instruments to young ladies was prevalent (69).

In the 18^th and 19^th centuries, an education reform occurred in America, focusing on reason and nature.  This was in the period of the Enlightenment (78).  William C. Woodbridge changed the teaching system in America, making vocal music a regular part of the school curriculum (89).  Elam Ives set up musical seminars and taught key music concepts.  He was the first to use Pestalozzian concepts in music education (90-91).  Pestalozzianism stressed instruction should proceed from familiar to new, incorporating performance of concrete arts and the experience of emotional responses, paced to follow the gradual unfolding of a child’s development (81-82).  Ives taught Pestalozzianism in his seminars and was a key figure in developing music education in America.

In the 19^th century, Lowell Mason, a music teacher who set up singing schools and harmonized psalms and hymns, promoted music education throughout the country.  Earlier in his life, Mason attended singing schools and played multiple instruments.  He believed students must be led to the information by the teacher and did not promote teacher dictation (107).  Mason established singing schools primarily in Boston.  Later, the public school music program was expanded.  However, an enriched curriculum was not developed until the tax-supported school system was enforced.  By 1838, music was an accepted subject in Boston public schools, but it could not exceed two hours per week (114).

Music was added to the curriculum of private academies and select schools, where teachers were paid directly through the students.  Music courses were popular in these schools.  Each school competed with the depth and breadth of music courses offered.  Some schools began to offer so many music courses they resembled conservatories (149-52).  A conservatory is a school specifically designed to focus on music and the arts, with a small focus on subjects such as math, science, and history (outside of music and art history).

As public schools improved and their curriculum was expanded, the pressure for art and music education increased.  While the public schools were being improved, the need for music education was realized on a larger scale than it had been before.

In the midst of the aforementioned history, published books regarding music education emerged.  In 1861, Joseph Bird was the first to attempt and complete the Vocal Music Reader, essentially a song book where the singer reads music.  In 1864, Lowell Mason wrote the first actual music series with Song Garden.  The music series was to be used for more universal music education.  In 1870-1875, Luther Whiting Mason wrote a national music course used in the United States and Germany for over 50 years (189).  In 1883, John Tufts and Hosea Edson Holt wrote Normal Music Course, an attempt at an even more universal curriculum (196).

In the 1870s, some schools began specialized programs for the education of music teachers.  Schools for music teachers evolved from conventions lasting a few weeks.  At this time, there was a growing concern for musicianship and skills necessary to teach vocal music successfully in schools (206-07).  The National Normal Music School was established, using Luther Mason’s National Music Course (212).  Julia Crane wrote a teachers manual in 1887 to influence the training of musical teachers.  She focused on the most beneficial progression of music education for children.  In 1907, the Music Supervisors National Conference met and discussed standard curricula.  Those that did offered detailed courses.  In 1921, the education council of this conference developed a four year plan consisting of ¾ music education and ¼ general studies, specifically designed for music schools.  Course work included piano, voice, theory, ear training, music history, music appreciation, orchestration and methods, and music electives (215-19).

In the 1900s, music performance classes (learning how to play and perform an instrument) began to dominate over music appreciation classes (listening to music and learning its importance).  Instrumental instruction became more widespread in 1900.  In the 19^th century, instruction as to how to play instruments was less prevalent (270-72).  The 20^th century saw technology advances in music instruction methods and the rise of instrumental music (225).  The conservatory system was developed in the 20^th century.  The conservatory system taught music intensively, with the goal to produce excellent performers with broad musical backgrounds.  Conservatories accepted musicians of all aptitudes and declined as public school instruction rose (278-79).

Later in the 20^th century, newer approaches to music education came from abroad.  Carl Orff promoted creativity and encouraged memory (343).  Zoltán Kodály’s approach was to learn rhythm and melodic ideas.  He focused on folk music, theory, reading, writing notation, and singing as a basic mode of instruction (347).  The Suzuki method, still popular today, focused on teaching basic principles such as listening and proper playing techniques, as well as motivating and reinforcing the students.  Suzuki taught young children through repetition (350-51).  Now that some history has been given, the relevancy of the issue will be discussed.

Music education is important for all because it is widespread and prevalent in society.  Humans encounter music almost daily whether it is through the radio, in the shopping mall, at work, the television, listening for pleasure, or playing an instrument.  Since music is encountered almost daily, music education is helpful in explaining how something daily encountered works.  Music education is readily available through public schools, private schools, colleges and universities, and private lessons.  Since it is readily available, it has the potential to affect everybody, increasing its importance.  My thesis is relevant because it will help people understand the benefits of music education and why it should be kept in schools.

In order to prove music education improves human thought processes, I will explain first, music education aids the development of language; second, music education aids the development of proper emotional and physiological (bodily) responses; and third, music education improves logic.  I will then refute first, music education hinders learning for those not musically inclined; and second, science and math education are more important and should receive more funding than music education.

My first argument is music education aids the development of language.  The world is understood and described through language.  Though language is not the only way the world is described and understood, it is a primary way.  If one does not have a good basis for understanding language and, as a result, does not understand language, their perception of the world will be different.  Admittedly, everyone’s perception of the world is different before language comes into effect.  However, perception of language alters perception of events and issues.  An example of how language changes one’s perception of the world is reading contracts.  Failure to understand language in contracts can lead to signing something not previously discussed or agreed to.  Understanding how language is used cannot take place until language is acquired, as in understanding phonics and word structure.  Music education aids in the acquisition of phonics and word structure, thereby paving the way for understanding language use (aiding the understanding of everyday conversations and encounters).  A study taken at the Arts Based Elementary School (ABES, a charter school) in North Carolina (the town was not specified) in 2002 divided students in kindergarten through third grade into test and control groups.  At the beginning of the school year, each student was evaluated by three tests.  One was the Broad Reading sections of the Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Achievement, which tests letter-word identification, reading fluency, and passage comprehension.  The second was the Predictive Assessment of Reading, which measures how well one understands phonetics (phonemic awareness) as well as fluency and name recall.  Phonetics is “the branch of language study dealing with speech sounds, their production and combination, and their representation by written symbols” (“Phonetics”).  The third test was the Auditory-Visual Integration test, a computerized test measuring spatial-temporal tasks.  Spatial-temporal tasks are temporary, short-term tasks completed in a space or area.  The children were evaluated by the same tests at the end of the term, just before Christmas break.  During the study, the test group participated in 18 half-hour lessons with four musicians over a four-month period.  The control group participated in chess lessons during the same period.  Both phonemic awareness and spatial-temporal abilities improved in all grade levels in the test groups.  Overall, the study indicates children in early elementary grades develop stronger bases of understanding phonetics and develop a better understanding of how to read when nine hours of special music instruction are added to their lives (Fox 114-115).  Though other methods can be used in teaching students how to read, such as tutoring and completing reading assignments, the study proves adding music instruction to a child’s life improves reading ability.  Adding nine hours of special music instruction in one, four-month time period (rather than all year) improved students’ ability to read; providing music instruction each year will continue to improve the ability to read.

Results of a brain scan study indicate the brain processes music and language with overlapping ways of thinking, in overlapping structures/parts of the brain.  This evidence corresponds to the assumption music and speech is intimately connected in early life.  Musical elements pave the way to linguistic capacities (the mental ability to understand language) earlier than phonetic elements (phonics, the basics of learning how to speak and read a language) (Koelsch 151).

Music and speech share characteristics such as sound waves, perception through the ear, and conversion to neural impulses.  Processing music and language takes place in the same general brain regions.  Music and language both rely on the perception and processing of “assembled units” combined with tonal features and associated with unique symbols.  These symbols are letters in the case of language and notes in the case of music.  Therefore, music and language are multisensory (Fox 120).  Since music and language share these characteristics, understanding how to listen to music can aid the understanding of language.  The argument which follows is music education can aid the understanding of language.  Music is concerned with the communication of musical ideas.  Speech deals with words and the expression of thought.  Speech and music are both types of communication.  Speech and music are also similar as they entail a degree of precision, but neither more so than the other (Henson 252).

Musical abilities are important in language perception and understanding.  In tonal languages, such as Chinese, changes in pitch lead to changes in word meaning.  In both tonal and non-tonal languages, prosody (the musical features of language, including melody, timbre, rhythm, and meter) is of vast importance for understanding structure and meaning in speech.  Music education improves musical abilities in this regard.  EEG (electroencephalography) studies (brain scanning) revealed similarities in the processing of tonal phase boundaries in language and music.  The studies also showed musical training can make the processing of pitch contour in spoken non-tonal language easier.  The findings of other studies (ERAN and ELAN) indicate an overlap of brain (or neural) resources engaged for the processing of syntax in music and language (Koelsch 145-147).  The musical features of language are important for the structure and meaning of speech.  For example, the rhythm at which a statement is said or the emphasis put on certain words changes the meaning of a sentence.  Likewise in music, dynamics play an important part in the tone and mood of the piece.  Studying musical features of language (such as rhythm and accented notes) aids understanding how music relates to language.  Not understanding the use of language in a sentence (in regards to meaning and intonation) makes one feel as though he does not understand the world around him.  Intonation is “the manner of applying final pitch to a spoken sentence or phrase; significant levels and variations in pitch sequences within an utterance” (“Intonation”).  Music education aids the understanding of language in meaning and intonation.  Since this is the case, one would not as frequently feel as though he does not understand the world due to music education.

Additionally, music lessons expand children’s vocabulary.  Musicians and teachers provide information about their instruments and musical concepts through new language, thereby improving students’ vocabulary (Fox 123).  Knowing and understanding musical words such as “tuba” and “allegro,” as well as other instrument names and terms indicating how a piece of music should be played are meaningful to a vocabulary.  Terms indicating how a piece should be played are predominately Italian.  For example, “allegro” is Italian.  Italian is Latin-based (as are Spanish and French).  Many English words are based on Latin, Italian, Spanish, and French words.  Understanding Italian words as they refer to music will, with the assistance of other studies, aid the understanding of literature and language.  Music terminology facilitates the development of the ability to understand and observe similarities between languages.  As humans, it is in our best interest to understand language and how to communicate with others more effectively, since language and communication skills are necessary in each facet of life (primarily when talking to others).  Music education aids the understanding of vocabulary and thereby aids more effective communication, making music education useful even in talking to fellow human beings.

Grasping language aids our understanding of the world around us, as the world is described through and people communicate through language.  Understanding music through music education aids the comprehension of language because new language is taught to students, which develops their understanding of the world.  As proven above, reading and understanding music through music education helps one know words better.  Knowing words better helps one communicate more effectively on a daily basis, read contracts more effectively, and understand politics, culture, and events better.  Thus, language acquisition and a more developed (better) understanding of language aid the understanding of the world.  As a whole, music education aids the development of language processes in the brain due to the intimate connection between music and language and the applications understanding language through music has on one’s life.

My second argument is music education aids the development of proper emotional and physiological (bodily) responses to reality.  When proper emotional responses are developed, so is a proper understanding of reality.  Learning what emotion the composer was seeking to evoke and how the composer viewed the piece helps the student learn proper emotional responses to music.  What emotion the composer was seeking to evoke can be discovered by observing the description of how the piece is to be played regarding dynamics, or through listening to the song.  Through music education, students will be taught how to react to certain pieces of music.  The teacher explains to the students what emotion the composer was trying to evoke, and points students to this reaction.  Or, the teacher may tell the students how different people react to the piece, and tell them if it is correct.  The accuracy of a reaction is based on the description of how the piece is to be played and listening to it played properly (according to the composer’s description).  A piece played quickly (allegro) with a melodic tone and disparity in loudness and softness (dynamics) would most likely result in excitement in the listener.  The composer determined how the piece should be played to the above specifications.  In music education, the students are taught how pieces are played (loudness and softness, speed, tone).  Students are also taught why they respond to specific pieces with specific emotions.  For example, the teacher explains the quick-moving nature of a piece excites students because of how the human body naturally reacts.  If a student understands why he reacts to certain pieces of music the way he does, he can carry that over to other facets of life.  For example, if a student knows why a piece made him feel excited, he can use the same process previously used to understand why he feels upset in a different situation, not related to music.  Music education provides the student with tools to figure out his emotions because music education uses and teaches the aforementioned tools of observing the source and emotional reaction.  He will analyze said emotion and use the same process in various stages of life.

Music is a means of getting out of a bad mood and reducing tension and anxiety.  The ability to manage moods is extremely important for psychological functioning.  This is because mood influences memory, decision-making, and evaluative judgments (Clarke 89-90).  Better memory, decision-making, and evaluative judgments aid the development of a proper understanding of reality.  Memory influences perception of the world as facts are remembered and applied in daily life.  Decisions and evaluative judgments are made each day regarding little things (what to wear, eat, etc.) and larger issues (where to attend college, how to discipline if in a situation of authority, etc.).  Managing moods (which can be helped through music education), influences decisions and therefore one’s life.  Music can also be used to keep brain cells alive during periods of stress.  Excessive stress destroys brain cells, according to the latest brain research.  Unfortunately, the author I learned this from was not specific and no explanation of the brain research was provided (Leviton 283).

Gilliland and Moore, two researchers studying the immediate and long-term effects of classical and popular music selections, completed an extensive study on how music influences mood and emotion.  One aspect of the study involved taking a picture of a participant before and after listening to a piece of music, in order to illustrate and make a conclusion on how music influences reactions, mood, and emotions.  They concluded from those photographs the appreciation of good music tends to result in improved morale (221).  Good morale is important for a person’s well-being.  Morale is “moral or mental condition with respect to courage, discipline, confidence, enthusiasm, willingness to endure hardship, etc. within a group, in relation to a group, or within an individual” (“Morale”).  A positive mental outlook on hardship, courage, discipline, etc. improves well-being.  Embodying discipline and courage and enduring hardship make one’s life better as a whole.  This is because discipline produces strong work ethic, courage defeats fear, and enduring hardship improves mental and emotional strength.  Music education teaches the appreciation of good music, thereby improving morale and overall lifestyle.

Emotions not only guide our actions, but they also enable expression of how we feel to others and allow for the interpretation of other people (meaning how one reacts to something he is told or how someone else’s emotions are perceived).  Emotional responses for everyday events are part of what make us human (Clarke 82).  If one can understand the world around him better and understand proper emotional responses, interactions with others will also be improved.  Schoen and Gatewood, researchers studying the mood effects of music, performed two studies.  For the purpose of this essay, only the first study will be discussed.  The collection of data indicated musical pieces and compositions produce a change in the emotional state of the listener.  Each composition showed a noticeable uniformity in how it changed listeners’ emotions and responses.  The first study tested 17 men and women, some of them students of the music and drama departments of the Carnegie Institute of Technology, and others of faculty members from the Division of Co-operative Research.  Each participant filled out a mood change chart indicating where they were located, time of day, weather, what music selection they desired to hear, their mood preceding the test, any serious mood changes the music brought about, the selection causing the mood change, and how the mood changed.  Rather than presenting the participants with a selection of moods to choose from, the sheet required participants to record their mood, with the aim of observing accurate mood changes (this, of course, assumes the honesty of the participant).  Preceding the study, each participant was interviewed to determine their musicality and attitude toward music.  The 15 selections used were all instrumental.  The pieces were organized into two overall classes, joyful and serious.  After listening to the selections in a predetermined order, each participant completed a questionnaire indicating the participant’s mood before and after listening to the selection, rating the music (how they liked it, if it was good), and the familiarity of the selection.  A summary of the data was collected, and Schoen concluded the large variety of selections used not only produced a change of mood in practically all listeners, but also the moods induced by each selection or class of selections were strikingly similar in type.  Under the classification of joyful pieces, the moods recorded beforehand were disparate, but afterward, the majority felt joyful.  For example, after listening to “William Tell Overture,” 10 of the 13 listeners felt joyful.  After “Light Cavalry Overture,” 12 of 13 listeners were joyful; after “Shepherd’s Dance,” eight of nine felt joyful.  “Anitra’s Dance” caused seven of eight listeners to feel joyful.  “Pastel-Minuet” caused 13 of 17 to feel joyful, and, finally, “Liebesfreud” caused eight of 12 to feel joy.  Only four of eight listeners of “Aida March” were joyful, however the tabulation of the other data significantly compensates for the 50% feeling joyful after “Aida March” (Gatewood 131-142).  Their study demonstrates not only music has a strong impact on emotion, but also each musical piece tends to have the same impact on a significant percentage of listeners.  In music education, students are taught how to react emotionally to pieces.  Since reactions are uniform to a striking degree for each composition, students can be taught how to emote about a piece.  Emoting about music is the first step.  Emoting properly about music can lead to emoting properly about family situations, because the tools will be developed.  In turn, as learning to emote properly develops, students will learn how to develop proper emotional responses to other, larger issues in the world, such as water crises, debt, politics, wars, etc.  The skill starts small but ends in emoting properly about world issues.  Music education will aid the initial development of the ability to emote properly.

Not only do emotions respond to music, but also the body responds to music (physiological responses).  The brain signals the body to react certain ways to certain pieces of music.  For example, a person might want to begin dancing after listening to a lively piece of music, or sit down and relax after listening to soothing music.  “It has been known for many years that perceptual and emotional musical experiences lead to changes in blood pressure, pulse rate, respiration … and other autonomic (automatic, functions the brain controls sub-consciously) functions” (Harrer 202).  Music, then, not only changes our emotions, but also our body signals.  Studying music helps develop proper emotional responses and proper emotional responses aid a better understanding of reality.  This ultimately helps decision-making for the rest of one’s life.  Improving understanding of reality improves thought processes since the brain also processes reality as it understands reality (as well as when proper emotional responses are developed, as stated previously).  Therefore, since music education improves human thought processes in this regard, it would be foolish to deny any student music education.  Imagine a loved one making poor decisions because he was never taught how to develop proper emotional responses.  While other means to teach the development of proper emotional responses exist (such as parents explaining proper reactions in the home), music education enhances these skills.  Appreciating good music (and learning how to do so through music education) helps students develop more accurate emotional responses than without such music education.

My third argument is music education improves logic.  Music is best taught in an orderly sequence.  Granted, teaching in an orderly sequence works for any subject; like Mathematics, Science, or English, however, it should be experienced through music education due to the other connections music (and music education) has to order and logical thought processes.  New information is best and most easily learned when it builds on what has previously been presented (Fox 136).  Though no “right order” exists for music education universally, the very nature of music (rhythms, theory, scales, etc.) is cumulative, and therefore should be taught as such.  When music is taught in an orderly sequence, students will learn how to see the world in an orderly fashion, as they mimic the order demonstrated in the classroom.  Music is everywhere; thus, seeing music in an orderly fashion will cause students to see this one reoccurring aspect of life and culture in an orderly manner.  Seeing music, an important aspect of culture, in an orderly fashion will later aid a student’s ability to understand other aspects of culture and the world in an orderly fashion.  Since other subjects in school are taught in an orderly fashion, students will see those topics in sequence and all of the subjects will come together in an orderly sequence in their brain through constant exposure to the subjects in an orderly fashion.  Though it may seem this magically happens, the argument is tangible.  Music has an inherent order.  Musical works contain specific rhythms specified in the very beginning.  Though the rhythm may change, a new rhythm is always indicated in the piece.  Scales have a proper order.  Scales (of one octave) consist of eight notes played in ascending order and in descending order.  In music education, students are taught the basic components of musical rhythm and scales, the orderliness of music.  The teacher should explain how to identify order in other areas of life.  The teacher may say something like “Now we see the rhythmic order of the piece, as you identified it.”  You can use this same process, of observing, contemplating, and finding relationships in other areas of life.  For example, analyze the logical sequence of events in this class.”  The student will do so, thereby practicing the ability to recognize order and sequence.  This will aid the development of logical and rational thought processes.

Webster’s New World Dictionary of the American Language defines logic as a “science which describes relationships among propositions in terms of implication, contradiction, contrariety, conversion, etc.; necessary connection or outcome, as through the working of cause and effect” and order as “the sequence or arrangement of things or events.”  Logic does not equal order, but order is a component of logic.  In logic, the sequence of things and events are observed through cause and effect.  The cause leads to the effect through some sequence of events, thus logic has order.  The description of relationships among propositions requires some order, as the description will have an order to it.  Thus logic and order are correlated.  Since logic and order are correlated, viewing a subject in an orderly sequence will aid the development of logical thought processes.

Music and mathematics are also related.  Mathematics is associated with logic.  Music relates very well to mathematics regarding sound frequencies and waves.  Sound waves can be represented in a curved, repeating graph (a sinusoidal graph), commonly used in mathematics.  Music is very math based, as rhythms have an order and sequence and use a counting method.  The production of sound waves in musical notes can best be explained through mathematics.  Tones can be analyzed through bar graphs, once again, relating music to mathematics.  To analyze tones through a bar graph, write the names of the notes in one octave (a series of eight notes in a certain interval on an instrument) on the horizontal axis (F, G, A, etc.) and how loud or soft the note was (either in precise decibel measurements or in common language-loud or soft) on the vertical axis.  Then create a second graph comparing loudness and softness between notes in a different octave, and compare the two graphs.  While simply analyzing information through a graph does not intimately connect a subject matter to mathematics, music and mathematics have a stronger correlation, as shown through the other examples above.  “Acoustics (the physics of sound) has well-developed and sophisticated methods to describe and observe the physical characteristics of the amplitude (power) and frequency (speed of oscillation) duration, and superimposition of wave forms, but this is very different from describing how they are perceived by human beings” (Clarke 68).  Acoustics is directly related to mathematics and physics, as acoustics has methods to describe and observe wave forms produced in music through mathematics, relating music to mathematics more intimately.  Psychoacoustics is also studied in music education.  Psychoacoustics is the study of relationships between acoustical events (such as frequencies, duration, and intensity of notes and sound waves) and their physiological and psychological counterparts (such as pitches, timbres, rhythms, and loudness in music) (170).  Studying acoustics and psychoacoustics in music education gives students a better understanding of how amplitude, frequency, duration, rhythms, pitches, and wave forms relate to mathematics and logicality.  One “real world” benefit of understanding how music relates to mathematics is the career field.  Physicists use wave amplitude, frequency, and duration in their field when studying light and sound waves.  Engineers developing instruments use mathematics skills to evaluate how sound waves will exit the instrument.  Musicians should understand the relation of music and mathematics to help evaluate how to play a piece louder or softer, as well as increase their general understanding of sound waves and their instrument.

If not interested in the aforementioned career fields, understanding music mechanics better through mathematics, acoustics, and psychoacoustics relates to logical faculties for non-musical aspects of life and thought.  Pattern recognition is beneficial for thought processing outside of music.  Noticing patterns in behavior of children can aid the correction of wrong behavior.  Pattern recognition is beneficial for the student in other classes, such as patterns in style of literature, historical patterns, and scientific patterns.  Pattern recognition is also the focus of the science section of the American College Testing (ACT), a standardized test colleges examine the results of to determine a student’s preparedness for college.  The ACT utilizes pattern recognition in each section; however pattern recognition analysis is the primary aim of the science section.  Understanding patterns based on rhythms is taught in music education.  Patterns are presented throughout logic; understanding patterns aids the understanding of logic.  Music education then, in its explanation of rhythms, increases pattern recognition, thereby increasing the understanding of logic, relating music mechanics to logical faculties for non-musical aspects of life and thought.

As explained in the first main argument (relating music to language acquisition), there is no one center in the brain which houses all the neurological correlates (or thought processes and brain functions) of the varied skills understanding music requires.  As someone listens to music, he becomes more critical of music, partially transferring music perception to the left hemisphere of the brain (Storr 37-38).  The left hemisphere primarily controls logical decision-making and critical thinking faculties.  Music education gives students more experience in exercising logical faculties.  As logical faculties are developed, a student will gradually learn how to make rational decisions outside of musical experiences.

David, an autistic boy, suffered from anxiety and poor visual-motor coordination.  He had been trying to learn how to tie his shoe laces for nine months, unsuccessfully.  His audio-motor coordination was discovered to be very good.  He could drum very well and was musically gifted.  His therapist successfully taught him how to tie his shoe laces through a song.  “A song is a form in time.  David had a special relationship to this element and could comprehend the shoe-tying process when it was organized in time through a song” (Storr 33).  Conventional methods failed to teach him to tie his shoes, but teaching him through music was successful.  His logical faculties were advanced in the music realm.  Teaching him how to tie his shoe laces through music was successful because music aided his logical understanding of how to tie his shoes.  The author does not specify whether music helped David’s non-shoe-tying processes.  However, since this has worked once, it has the potential to work again.  Memorizing facts through music has proved successful as well.  The logicality of rhythms helps the brain process facts and commit them to memory.  For example, Kaitlyn Thornton, Elsa Lang, and I still remember the Presidents of the United States song learned six years ago.  The song lyrics were a list of each president’s names in chronological order.  The logical rhythm of music and the order which music is composed of helps the brain understand and remember facts.

Kenneth Wendrich wrote many essays on music education and society.  Langer, who Wendrich refers to, defines music as a logical expression of sentient life.  This is because of music’s characteristics of rhythm and temporal organization.  In music education, students are acquainted with how tones are organized in time and “study those (musical) works which have, by virtue of their position in the culture, engendered the strongest resonance with man’s sentient life” (Wendrich 107).  Wendrich and Langer agree music education resonates and aids man’s sentient, or conscious, thought life.  Because this is true, music education, by its very nature, improves logical thought processes and thereby improves human thought processes as a whole.  Logical thought processes are an aspect of human thought processes as a whole, improving one aspect of thought makes the entirety better, as the whole is composed of parts.  While logic does not equal sentience/consciousness, much analytical and logical thought occurs in the conscious mind.  While some logic occurs subconsciously, humans also think through situations and make decisions consciously.  For example, if one is trying to decide where the most logical place to buy dinner would be, he will (or should) consciously and logically think through how much money he has, gasoline costs, type of food desired, traffic, and location.  This is a sentient act.  Langer and Wendrich argue music education improves man’s sentient (conscious) thought life, logic and sentience are interrelated, thereby correlating sentient acts of reasoning (such as which restaurant to support) to music education.

Music education improves students’ thought processes because it provides them with valuable reasoning processes and a logical brain that will aid them in decision-making for the rest of their lives.  Music education provides students with a logical brain due to the teaching of music in an orderly fashion, music’s relation to mathematics and patterns, the analysis of music in the left hemisphere of the brain, and because music helps the brain learn facts and complete functions.  Music education aids man’s conscious, rational, and logical thought life.

The first argument I will refute is music education hinders learning for those not musically inclined.  This argument says due to the fact music is not the way every individual understands the world, attempting to understand the world through music would ultimately harm some peoples’ way of understanding and cause confusion.  This argument pertains to the manipulation of Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences.  Manipulators of Gardner’s theory (those who oppose my thesis) argue if an individual is not musically inclined and his musical thinking intelligence is weak or undeveloped, music education would not improve his thought processes.  Howard Gardner of Harvard developed a theory suggesting seven distinct intelligences exist.  His theory attempts to document the extent of the different ways in which students learn, remember, perform, and understand, according to the type of mind each student possesses.  According to Gardner’s theory, everyone is able to know the world through language, logical-mathematical analysis, visual-spatial representation (those who think in terms of physical space and 3-D imaging), musical thinking, physically solving problems and creating items, an understanding of others, and an understanding of ourselves.  However, each individual differs in the strength of each intelligence (Lane).

The aforementioned argument is incorrect for a number of reasons.  First, proponents of the view do not fully understand Gardner’s theory.  Gardner stated everyone is indeed able to know the world through music.  Even if one’s grasp on music is weak and one is not musically inclined, maybe even musically ignorant, he can still understand the world through music.  Although attempting to understand through music may seem challenging at first, as musical ability is strengthened through music education, understanding the world through music will be developed and therefore useful.  Similarly, learning how to read takes time, though it may be challenging at first.  Once grasped, the ability to understand and learn through reading is developed and useful.  One may understand the world better through a different avenue than music; however music education will still improve his thought processes.

Gardner proposed the musically inclined show sensitivity to rhythm and sound, may study better with music in the background, and can be taught by turning lessons into lyrics, speaking rhythmically, and tapping out time.  The musically inclined, therefore, would benefit greatly from music education.  However, the other side of the issue must be addressed here.

Music education aids in the development of logical faculties.  Those who understand best through logical-mathematical analysis benefit from music education because of the logicality of rhythms.  Also, those who understand best through language benefit from music education.  Because the relation of logical-mathematical faculties and language’s relation to music were previously explained in the confirmation, no more will be said here.

Music education also helps those who understand best through visual-spatial representation.  The primary tool visual-spatial representation thinkers use to understand is a model of what is being taught (Lane).  Music education not only uses models (sheet music represented in time and space), but the instruments themselves aid visual-spatial representation thinkers’ understanding.  As the instruments are physical objects (visual-spatial thinkers’ way of understanding), music education aids the development of visual-spatial thinkers’ minds.  Music education also elaborates on the spatial representation of notes on sheet music, thus one’s spatial representation faculties are developed.  Ultimately, if one learns best through spatial representation, they can do so with a better process due to music education.  The use of the body is prevalent in music education because of how one plays a musical instrument.  Thus, proponents of Gardner’s theory who oppose the idea music education improves human thought processes fall short.  Everyone can understand through music to a degree; other intelligences are developed and used in music education.

The second argument I will refute is science and math education are more important and should receive more funding than music education.  Thus, more federal funding (or, in the case of private schools, a greater portion of the budget) should go toward science and math education, and little funding for music education.  Proponents of this view downplay the role and importance of music education in students’ lives.  They say math and science are more prevalent because math is used every day through counting money, math class, science class, computers (as the technology behind computers is math based), and the way the universe is created (angles, geometry, symmetry, etc.).  They argue math and science aid the student more as a whole because it helps him understand subjects so prevalent in the world around him.

While this argument seems valid, it is not totally correct.  Math and science education are very important to a students’ education, true, but the purpose of the argument against it is not to downplay their importance.  Rather, this argument seeks to reveal the importance of music education.  Ample funding and budgeting should be provided for science, mathematics, and music.

Kenneth Wendrich, a writer of essays on the importance of music education, supports the view funding ought to be provided toward music and the fine arts because of their prevalence in society.  Music is played in many public places and the arts reflect culture.  Studying art and music from previous eras reflects on the ideologies of said eras and will aid the student in the understanding of culture before their time.  Due to this, music education should be competing with math and science in budgets and schedules.  Wendrich argues “[t]here must be correlated educational programs, particularly at the secondary school level designed to develop an understanding of art works and the artists who produced them in their contemporary societies. Current curricula in the secondary schools have been something less than effective in developing the desired level of understanding in the arts” (72).  Wendrich is not arguing only for music education but fine art education as a whole.  Fine arts education is “any of the art forms that include drawing, painting, sculpture, and ceramics, or, occasionally, architecture, literature, music, dramatic art, or dancing” (“Fine Art”).  Wendrich argues there must be educational programs to develop an understanding of art and the ones in existence have failed.  Funding should indeed go toward music, with the intention of developing better programs.

A seminar held at Yale in 1963 discussed ways to improve high school music programs.  The programs required improvement due to lack of teachers and materials.  With more funding, programs can hire more teachers and acquire ample materials.  One of the seminar’s recommendations was a music literature course for all high school and middle school students should be designed.  This music literature course would develop musical understanding through listening, analysis, and discussion of a limited number of representative compositions.  The project assumed the development of musicality is the primary aim of music education, musicality has a lot to do with the ability to accurately express a musical idea (specifically through rhythm and pitch), and musicality has a lot to do with the ability to understand a musical statement by ear (Wendrich 74).  The seminar saw music education so important each middle school and high school should offer a music literature course.

Admittedly, the world has changed momentously in the 50 years since the seminar at Yale.  But even in a technology-driven world, music is still worth time away from math and science.  Science and mathematics are not more prevalent in society than music, nor should they be.  Though society is technology-driven, music is still a central aspect of culture.  Music is played in many public places such as elevators, the grocery store, radio, waiting rooms in doctors’ offices, and countless others, as expressed in the introduction.  Music scores are still developed in movies.  Take the recent film Les Misérables, for example.  The actors sang from the beginning to end of the film.  Understanding music’s powerful effect on emotions, as well as understanding music mechanics better, may increase one’s enjoyment of the film (the effort put forth and the beauty of the music).  Though the film was also technology-driven, as the graphics, filming, and lighting were brought about by technology, music still played an important role.  While math and science contribute greatly to the creation and development of technology, music is still worth time off of math and science.

Funding should be provided for music for more reason than its prevalence in society.  First, a disparity of subjects increases the diversity of education.  Rather than only teaching the subjects considered as “core” subjects (Math, Science, English, and History), students should be offered more opportunities and outlets.  Music is a means of getting out of a bad mood and reducing tension and anxiety (Clarke 89-90).  Second, the Bible emphasizes singing and worship.  In the book of Psalms, David sings songs of worship to the Lord.  After crossing the Red Sea, the Israelites praise God through song and worship.  Those are two of many Biblical examples where music is used to worship God.  Since music is a means of worshipping God, funding should be provided for music education, as musical worship will be enhanced when those worshipping are musically educated.  Science and math education are not more important than music education, and more funding should be provided for music education.

Imagine, again, a world without music.  The nature of entertainment would change.  Background music would be absent everywhere.  The education system would change.  Music education and music are central parts of being human.  Do you desire to aid the development of language, proper emotional responses, and the ability to think clearly and logically in your children and other loved ones?  If so, providing them with music education can and will aid your endeavors, ultimately increasing their well-being.  Music education improves human thought processes; denying loved ones of this would be a poor decision.  Due to the benefits of music education, it should be kept in schools.  I challenge you to enroll in a music course, learn how to play an instrument, or buy a basic music theory course from the local music store, and seek and support music education.

Works Cited

Clarke, Eric, Nicola Dibben, and Stephanie Pitts. Music and Mind in Everyday Life. Oxford University Press: Oxford, England, 2010. Print.

Fox, Janet and Peter Perret. A Well-Tempered Mind: Using Music to Help Children Listen and Learn. Dana Press: New York, New York, 2004. Print.

Gatewood, Esther and Max Schoen. “The Mood Effects of Music.” The Effects of Music: A Series of Essays. Ed. Max Schoen. Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co.: 1927. Routledge: London, England, 2001. 131-151. Print.

Gilliland, A.R. and H.T. Moore. “The Immediate and Long-Time Effects of Classical and Popular Phonograph Selections.” The Effects of Music: A Series of Essays. 211-222.

Guralnik, David B., ed. Webster’s New World Dictionary of the American Language. 2^nd ed. 1976. Print. “Fine Art,” “Intonation,” “Morale,” and “Phonetics.”

Harrer, G. and H. Harrer. “Music, Emotion and Autonomic Function.” Music and the Brain: Studies in the Neurology of Music. Eds. MacDonald Critchley and R.A. Henson. Charles C. Thomas: Springfield, Illinois, 1977. 202-216. Print.

Henson, R.A. “The Language of Music.” Music and the Brain: Studies in the Neurology of Music. 233-254.

Keene, James A. A History of Music Education in the United States. University Press of New England: Hanover, New Hampshire, 1982. Print.

Koelsch, Stefan. “Neural Substrates of Processing Syntax and Semantics in Music.” Music that Works: Contributions of Biology, Neurophysiology, Psychology, Sociology, Medicine, and Musicology. Eds. Vera Brandes and Roland Haas. Springer-Verlag/Wien: Vienna, Austria, 2009. 143-153. Print.

Lane, Carla. “Multiple Intelligences.” “The Distance Learning Technology Resource Guide.” N.p. n.d. Web. 28 January 2013.

Leviton, Richard. Brain Builders! A Lifelong Guide to Sharper Thinking, Better Memory, and an Age-Proof Mind. Parker Publishing Company: West Nyack, New York, 1995. Print.

Storr, Anthony. Music and the Mind. Macmillan, Inc.,The Free Press: New York, New York, 1992. Print.

Wendrich, Kenneth. Essays on Music in American Education and Society. University Press of America: Washington D.C., 1982. Print.